- China has built upon decades of earlier failures to field a growing submarine force.
- Its attack boats and boomers have grown much quieter and harder to track.
- The fleet build-up shows the importance China believes subs will have in future conflicts.
Two days before US Secretary of State Antony Blinken arrived in China this April for meetings with the country's leader and other high-ranking Chinese officials, China's People's Liberation Army Navy released footage of a nuclear submarine firing a ballistic missile.
The video, which also showed three other submarines making up the carrier Shandong's strike group, was released as part of celebrations marking the 75th anniversary of the country's navy. Two months after its release, a Chinese ballistic missile submarine surfaced in the Taiwan Strait, near Taiwan's Kinmen islands.
The publicity and show of force are the latest evidence of China getting serious about its ambitions to build up its nuclear submarine fleet.
China has built upon decades of earlier failures to field a growing submarine force whose boats are more capable against the US's advanced subs in a sign that China believes its ambitions may come down to an undersea fleet that can sink rivals and deter enemies from nuclear attack.
Its vast shipbuilding industry is cranking out nuclear submarines at a fast clip, with new designs also in the works.
Nuclear attack submarines
China's interest in nuclear submarines dates as far back as the mid 1950s, immediately after the US Navy commissioned the world's first nuclear submarine, USS Nautilus. But with the Soviet Union unwilling to transfer nuclear propulsion technology to China, the Chinese had to start from scratch.
China's first attempt at creating a nuclear-powered submarine was focused on developing a nuclear attack submarine (classified as SSN) because designing a nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine would have required developing a naval reactor, submarine-launched ballistic missile, and underwater launching system all at once.
The effort was given the green light in 1958, but construction on the first boat would not begin until 1968. Though launched in 1970, construction was further delayed by the upheaval of the Cultural Revolution, and the vessel was not commissioned until 1974.
Known as the Type 091, it was designated as the Han-class by NATO. Measuring from 321 to 350 feet long and displacing over 5,000 tons submerged, it was armed with six torpedo tubes at the bow that could fire at ships or other submarines. In all, five Type 091 SSNs were built between 1968 and 1990.
The Type 091 class was nowhere near as combat-capable as its peers, largely due to the fact that they were the first nuclear-powered submarines China ever built, and because they had no assistance in doing so; the sub's reactor must be stable enough to continuously provide mechanical power to turn its propellor and to generate its electricity. These subs were substantially louder than most of their contemporaries and were viewed as considerably outdated.
Type 091 subs did undertake multiple deployments and were involved in a number of incidents. They also received upgrades that improved their performance in the early 2000s. Ultimately, however, they served more as stepping stones towards future nuclear subs than as front-line assets. Two of the five subs have since been retired.
China's second-generation SSN, the Type 093, proved a drastic improvement over its predecessor. Designated the Shang-class by NATO, development on the subs originated in the 1980s, but construction on the first sub only began in 1998, four years after a decision by Chinese leaders to proceed with building a new class of SSNs to better face the challenges of the coming century.
Unlike the Type 091, the Type 093 benefitted from technology transfers from Russia. The Russian Rubin Design Bureau also reportedly consulted with the Chinese on the class's overall design. By 2003, the first sub was launched, and in 2006, it was commissioned into service.
At 351 feet long and with a displacement of about 7,000 tons, the Type 093s have six torpedo tubes capable of firing wired, acoustic, and wake-homing torpedoes. They are also capable of launching YJ-18 and YJ-82 anti-ship cruise missiles, and are equipped with bow and flank-mounted sonars.
Seven Type 093 SSNs have been built across three variants; two Type 093s, four Type 093As, and at least one Type 093B. The Type 093A is an upgraded design with improved quieting — noise is one of a submarine's biggest giveaways, which can be detected by passive sonar and hydrophones. The Type 093B is a further upgraded version, equipped with a pump-jet propulsor and the ability to deploy a towed sonar array. It is expected to play more of a land-attack role with long-range cruise missiles.
Nuclear ballistic missile submarines
Also known as "boomers" and given the classification "SSBN," nuclear ballistic missile submarines are perhaps the greatest nuclear deterrent any nation can possess. Intended to stay submerged for months at a time on a patrol, they carry nuclear missiles with long ranges and preserve a country's ability to retaliate if they are attacked with what's known as a second-strike capability. Deployed submarines are much more difficult to destroy compared to ICBM silos and strategic bombers.
China's first SSBN, the Type 092 (designated Xia-class by NATO), was based on the Type 091 SSN. Launched in 1981 and commissioned in 1983, only one was built. Measuring about 393 feet long and with a submerged displacement of about 8,000 tons, it was armed with six torpedo tubes and 12 launch silos for SLBMs.
Like the Type 091, the problem-plagued Type 092 is regarded as little more than a test case.
Despite being commissioned in 1983, it was only active from 1987 onwards. It had a terrible safety record, with reports of it suffering from radiation leakage, and was also considerably loud — so much so that there was little doubt it would be detected by its adversaries.
The SLBM it carried, the JL-1, was also comparatively unimpressive. Not fully operational until 1988, it was unable to carry multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), and instead only carried a single nuclear warhead ranging from 200 – 300 kilotons. Its range was also only about 1,056 – 1,335 miles, which severely limited its ability to strike the most relevant targets.
Consequently, the Type 092 never made a single deterrent patrol, and instead spent most of its time either within Chinese territorial waters or docked in Chinese naval bases. For all its inadequacies, however, the Type 092 did act as something of a stepping stone for the development of China's next SSBN, the Type 094.
Designated as the Jin-class by NATO, the Type 094 is a vast improvement over its predecessor, with a new propulsion system, improved electronics and sensors, and, perhaps most crucially, lower sound levels.
At 450 feet long and with a submerged displacement of around 10,000 tons, the sub's armament is similar to the Type 092 (six torpedo tubes and 12 SLBM launchers), but it carries a different SLBM: the JL-2.
Capable of carrying a one megaton nuclear warhead or 3-8 MIRVs, the JL-2 was introduced in 2015, and has an estimated range of between 4,970 - 5,592 miles. In 2022, it was reported that China began deploying the new JL-3 SLBM on its Type 094s.
Able to carry a single 1-megaton nuclear warhead and possibly multiple MRVs, the JL-3 is believed to have a range of over 6,200 miles — putting the American West Coast in range of Chinese SLBM's for the first time.
By comparison, US Navy Ohio-class SSBNs are each armed with 20 Trident II SLBMs, which are believed to have a minimum range of 1,242 and a maximum range of 7,456 miles.
Six Type 094s have been constructed, with the first laid down in 2001. The two most recent subs are of the Type 094A upgraded subvariant. The class represents China's first credible sea-based nuclear deterrent, with the US Department of Defense reporting in 2022 that China "is conducting continuous at-sea deterrence patrols" for the first time.
Numbers, sophistication, and use
The growth of China's nuclear submarine fleet is impressive considering the timeline. According to the US Department of Defense, China has constructed 12 nuclear submarines in the last 15 years.
And the growth isn't just constrained to numbers — it also includes capabilities, with the newest Chinese nuclear submarines closing the gap with their American counterparts. The Type 093, for instance, is believed to be about as quiet as the US Navy's current Los Angeles-class SSNs.
China's fleet of diesel-electric powered submarines is also getting larger and more sophisticated, with recent upgrades aimed at increasing stealth and time underwater being implemented on their newest Type 039 class subs.
The growth in numbers and sophistication reflects the importance China believes submarines, particularly nuclear submarines, will have in potential future conflicts with its regional and global adversaries.
Chinese SSNs, with their ability to stay under water for long periods of time, could act as hunter-killers of American and allied ships and submarines in the waters east of Taiwan, possibly pushing them towards the Second Island Chain.
Chinese SSBNs, meanwhile, would likely operate from the safety of their bastions in the South China Sea, ready to launch their SLBMs whenever required. They could also operate in the Sea of Japan, putting even more of the continental US in range of their missiles.
All the while, they could be aided by their fleet of diesel-electric attack subs and the Underwater Great Wall, a network of sensors embedded on the floor of the East and South China seas aimed at detecting rival subs.
But China's nuclear subs still have limitations. The Type 094, for instance, is reportedly louder than the 1970s-era Russian Delta III-class SSBN and about twice as loud as its current American or Russian counterparts.
China's nuclear submarine ambitions remain undiminished. A new class of SSBN, the Type 096, has been in development for years and is expected to be operational by 2030. A new SSN, the Type 095, is also planned as well.
Benjamin Brimelow is a freelance journalist covering international military and defense issues. He holds a master's degree in Global Affairs with a concentration in international security from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. His work has appeared in Business Insider and the Modern War Institute at West Point.